The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology held a consensus workshop in Manchester, UK in December 2003 to discuss issues relating to the care of GH-treated patients in the transition from paediatric to adult life. Clinicians experienced in the care of paediatric and adult patients on GH treatment, from a wide range of countries, as well as medical representatives from the pharmaceutical manufacturers of GH participated.
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P E Clayton, R C Cuneo, A Juul, J P Monson, S M Shalet, and M Tauber
Valérie Bernard, Bruno Donadille, Tiphaine Le Poulennec, Mariana Nedelcu, Laetitia Martinerie, and Sophie Christin-Maitre
Turner syndrome (TS), affecting 1/2000 to 1/2500 live born girls, is a chromosomal aberration with a total or partial loss of one of the X chromosomes. The diagnosis can be established from the intra-uterine life to adulthood. TS is a chronic disease with particular morbidity and mortality. The loss to follow-up rate, during transition, between children and adult units, remains a crucial issue. This review focusses on the adolescent and young adult patients with TS. The different goals of TS transition are presented as well as some of the tools available in order to improve this transition. The involvement of the patient’s family, advocacy groups and therapeutic educational programs are discussed. A specificity concerning TS transition, as compared to other chronic diseases, relies on the fact that patients with TS may present a peculiar neurocognitive profile. They are in general more anxious than the general population. Therefore, psychological support should be offered to optimize transition. Data illustrating the beneficial impact of an organised transition of TS, from paediatric units to multidisciplinary adult care systems, within the same reference centre are presented. Further studies are required to evaluate the mid-to-long-term transition of paediatric patients with TS referred to adult units.
E. Thamdrup
The term premature pubarche is given to conditions in which there is precocious growth of sexual hair (pubes and axillary hair) without any other symptoms of precocious puberty, i. e. without development of the genitals and, in girls, without growth of the breasts. Girls do not become virilized as in the case of the adrenogenital syndrome.
The series of cases comprises 17 patients, 12 girls and 5 boys. The symptoms in the former were observed before the age of 8, and in the latter before the age of 9 years. The patients were from the Dronning Louises Børnehospital (children's hospital, Copenhagen), the Paediatric Department of the University Hospital, Copenhagen, and 5 homes for the mentally defective: Andersvænge, Brejning, Ebberødgård, Ribe and Rødbygård.
Twelve of the patients had severe cerebral disorder, they were all mentally retarded, seven had epilepsy and seven spastic pareses. Four were blind, two had a coloboma of
H L Storr, K I Alexandraki, L Martin, A M Isidori, G A Kaltsas, J P Monson, G M Besser, M Matson, J Evanson, F Afshar, I Sabin, M O Savage, and A B Grossman
Objective
There are few published comparisons between paediatric and adult-onset Cushing's disease (CD). We compare the epidemiology, diagnostic features and cure rate by transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) in these groups.
Design
Retrospective review of patient databases in a single university hospital centre.
Patients
Totally, 41 paediatric (mean age 12.3±3.5 years; range 5.7–17.8) and 183 adult (mean age 40±13 years; range 18.0–95.0) patients with CD were investigated.
Results
Paediatric CD was characterised by male (63%) and adult CD by a female predominance (79%, P<0.0001). There were small but significant differences in clinical presentation. Biochemical features of CD were comparable except the serum cortisol increase during a CRH test: mean change (105%, n=39) in paediatric and (54%, n=123) in adult subjects (P<0.0001). Macroadenomas were more common in adult (15%, 28/183) than in paediatric (2%, 1/41, P=0.04) CD. Corticotroph microadenomas were more easily visualised by pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in adult (76%, 50/66) compared with paediatric (55%, 21/38, P=0.045) CD with poorer concordance of imaging with surgical findings in children (P=0.058). The incidence of ACTH lateralisation by bilateral simultaneous inferior petrosal sinus sampling was comparable in paediatric (76%, 25/33) and adult (79%, 46/58; P=0.95) patients with good surgical concordance in both (82% paediatric and 79% adult). Cure rates by TSS were comparable, with a paediatric cure rate of 69%.
Conclusion
Several features of paediatric CD are distinct: increased frequency of prepubertal CD in males, the different clinical presentation, the decreased presence of macroadenomas and the frequent absence of radiological evidence of an adenoma on MRI.
Robin Michelet, Johanna Melin, Zinnia P. Parra-Guillen, Uta Neumann, J Martin Whitaker, Viktoria Stachanow, Wilhelm Huisinga, John Porter, Oliver Blankenstein, Richard J. Ross, and Charlotte Kloft
Context:
Accurate hydrocortisone dosing in children with adrenal insufficiency is important to avoid the risks of over and under treatment including iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome and adrenal crisis.
Objective:
To establish a population pharmacokinetic model of hydrocortisone in children and use this to refine hydrocortisone replacement regimens.
Design and methods:
Pharmacokinetic study of hydrocortisone granules, available in 0.5, 1, 2 and 5 mg dose strengths, in 24 children with adrenal insufficiency aged 2 weeks to 6 years. Cortisol concentrations quantified by LC-MS/MS were used to refine an adult pharmacokinetic model to a paediatric population model which was then used to simulate seven different hydrocortisone treatment regimens.
Results:
Pre-dose cortisol levels were undetectable in 54% of the 24 children. The developed pharmacokinetic model had good predictive performance. Simulations for the seven treatment regimens using either three- or four-times daily dosing showed treatment regimens delivered an AUC0- 24h within the 90% reference range for healthy children except in neonates where two regimens had an AUC below the 5th percentile. Cortisol concentrations at individual time points in the 24 h were outside the 90% reference range for healthy individuals in 50%, 55–65% and 70–75% for children, infants and neonates, respectively, with low cortisol levels being most prevalent.
Conclusions:
Current paediatric hydrocortisone treatment regimens based on either three- or four-times daily administration replicate cortisol exposure based on AUC0- 24h, but the majority of cortisol levels are above or below physiological cortisol levels with low levels very common before the next dose.
A Natarajan, JK Wales, SS Marven, and NP Wright
A 6-month-old girl was referred with breast and pubic hair development. Investigations excluded an adrenal or central cause for her precocity. Ovarian ultrasound scans showed bilaterally enlarged ovaries with both solid and cystic changes. A follow-up examination suggested progression of the precocity and in view of the young age of the child, and concerns regarding underlying malignancy, she underwent laparotomy. Histology showed no evidence of neoplasia but there was stromal oedema consistent with a diagnosis of massive ovarian oedema. This entity is poorly recognised in the paediatric literature as a cause of sexual precocity, and has never previously been described in such a young patient. This is an unusual cause of precocity in a young child and its recognition and management are reviewed.
E Martin Ritzén
The mode of treatment best for undescended testes is controversial, and local traditions often override knowledge gained from randomized controlled studies. In order to reach a consensus within the Nordic countries on the current state-of-the-art of treatment, a group of specialists in testicular physiology, paediatric surgery/urology, endocrinology, andrology, pathology and anaesthesiology from all the Nordic countries met for 2 days. Before the meeting, reviews of the literature had been prepared by the participants. Judging from published meta-analyses, hormonal treatment has low efficacy. Although 15–20% of retained testes descend during hormonal treatment, one-fifth of these re-ascend later on. Also, treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) may be harmful to future spermatogenesis through increased apoptosis of germ cells. Orchiopexy, on the contrary, results in about 95% anatomical success, with a low (about 1%) risk of complications. The optimal time for orchiopexy has also been debated. However, a recent randomized controlled study shows that surgery at 9 months of age is followed by a better post-operative growth of the testes than surgery at 3 years, which supports previous arguments for early surgery. The unanimous conclusion of the group was that surgery is generally the preferred mode of treatment, rather than hCG or GnRH treatments. Orchiopexy should be performed between 6 and 12 months of age, or soon after diagnosis, if that occurs later. If a testis is found to be undescended at any age after 6 months, the patient should be referred for surgery. Referral should be to paediatric rather than general surgeons/urologists if the boy is less than 1 year old, if he has bilateral or non-palpable testes, or if he has got relapse of cryptorchidism.
Claus H Gravholt, Niels H Andersen, Gerard S Conway, Olaf M Dekkers, Mitchell E Geffner, Karen O Klein, Angela E Lin, Nelly Mauras, Charmian A Quigley, Karen Rubin, David E Sandberg, Theo C J Sas, Michael Silberbach, Viveca Söderström-Anttila, Kirstine Stochholm, Janielle A van Alfen-van derVelden, Joachim Woelfle, Philippe F Backeljauw, and On behalf of the International Turner Syndrome Consensus Group
Turner syndrome affects 25–50 per 100,000 females and can involve multiple organs through all stages of life, necessitating multidisciplinary approach to care. Previous guidelines have highlighted this, but numerous important advances have been noted recently. These advances cover all specialty fields involved in the care of girls and women with TS. This paper is based on an international effort that started with exploratory meetings in 2014 in both Europe and the USA, and culminated with a Consensus Meeting held in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA in July 2016. Prior to this meeting, five groups each addressed important areas in TS care: 1) diagnostic and genetic issues, 2) growth and development during childhood and adolescence, 3) congenital and acquired cardiovascular disease, 4) transition and adult care, and 5) other comorbidities and neurocognitive issues. These groups produced proposals for the present guidelines. Additionally, four pertinent questions were submitted for formal GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) evaluation with a separate systematic review of the literature. These four questions related to the efficacy and most optimal treatment of short stature, infertility, hypertension, and hormonal replacement therapy. The guidelines project was initiated by the European Society of Endocrinology and the Pediatric Endocrine Society, in collaboration with the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology, the Endocrine Society, the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology, the American Heart Association, the Society for Endocrinology, and the European Society of Cardiology. The guideline has been formally endorsed by the European Society of Endocrinology, the Pediatric Endocrine Society, the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology, the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology and the Endocrine Society. Advocacy groups appointed representatives who participated in pre-meeting discussions and in the consensus meeting.
Carl Gustaf Bergstrand
It is obvious that endocrine disorders in childhood and infancy covers such a vast field that it can not be covered in a short introductory paper. In the following an attempt is made to discuss these disorders from a general and especially paediatric point of view, mentioning some of the problems encountered by the author.
It may be asked why endocrine disorders in children should be treated as a special subject. Is not paediatric endocrinology simply the general endocrinology limited to a younger age group? Can not these diseases be treated by the endocrinologist? Yes, of course they can if the endocrinologist is also a paediatrician. The endocrinology of infancy and childhood is a part of paediatrics in the same way as paediatric cardiology, paediatric surgery, children's psychiatry, etc. This does of course not exclude an intimate cooperation between the endocrinologist and the paediatrician. On the contrary, it is often
G E Krassas, M Segni, and W M Wiersinga
Objective: Evaluation of the frequency of Graves’ ophthalmopathy (GO) and its management in children and adolescents up to 18 years old with Graves’ hyperthyroidism.
Study design: This was a questionnaire study (QS) among members of the European Thyroid Association and the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology. Approximately 300 QS were sent to members with electronic addresses and 110 QS were returned from 25 countries: 52 respondents said they had no experience with Graves’ disease in this age group, but 67 respondents (23 paediatric and 44 adult endocrinologists) completed the QS.
Results: Out of 1963 patients with juvenile Graves’ hyperthyroidism seen by respondents in the last 10 years, 641 (33%) had GO; about one-third of GO cases were ≤10 years old, and two-thirds were 11–18 years old. The prevalences of GO among juvenile Graves’ hyperthyroidism were 36.6, 27.3 and 25.9% in countries in which the smoking prevalence among teenagers was ≥25, 20–25 and <20% respectively (P < 0.0001 by χ2 test). When confronted with the standard case of a 13-year-old girl with Graves’ hyperthyroidism and moderately severe active GO, the diagnostic approach included on average 4.9 biochemical tests (TSH, free thyroxine (FT4) and TSH.R-Ab, 100-88% of respondents) and 2.4 specific investigations (thyroid ultrasound by 69%, orthopsy/visual fields/visual acuity by 64% and orbital magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography by 63%). Antithyroid drugs were the treatment of choice for 94% of respondents; 70% recommended a wait-and-see policy and 28% corticosteroids for the co-existing GO. In variants of the standard case, a younger age did not affect therapeutic approach very much. Recurrent hyperthyroidism would still be treated with antithyroid drugs by 66%, and with 131I by 25%. Worsening of GO or active GO when euthyroid would convince about two-thirds of respondents to initiate treatment of GO, preferably with steroids.
Conclusion: GO occurs in 33% of patients with juvenile Graves’ hyperthyroidism; its prevalence is higher in countries with a higher prevalence of smoking among teenagers. The diagnostic approach to the standard case of a 13-year-old with Graves’ hyperthyroidism and moderately severe active GO involves on average five biochemical tests; thyroid as well as orbital imaging is done in 84% of cases. Antithyroid drugs remain the treatment of choice for 94% of respondents, and even so in case of recurrences (66%). For GO, 70% recommend a wait-and-see policy; intervention, preferably with steroids, is advocated by two-thirds of respondents in cases of worsening or still-active eye disease despite euthyroidism.