Congenital hypothyroidism (CH) is the most common congenital endocrine disorder. The early treatment of CH patients has successfully improved the prognosis and management of this disorder. Optimal treatment and management throughout the patient's life, beginning in the neonatal period, are required to ensure long-term health. Affected patients should be offered assessments of associated medical conditions and provided with accurate information about their condition throughout their lives, but particularly during the transition from pediatric to adult services. This review provides a summary of current knowledge about the long-term outcomes of these patients and appropriate management into early adulthood. We carried out a systematic search of the Medline database to identify relevant articles. Despite major improvements in prognosis, the impact of CH is clearly not uniform, and management should take into account a broader range of relevant indicators, including CH severity, associated comorbid conditions and the adequacy of treatment during childhood and adulthood. The early diagnosis and management of associated medical conditions, and better educational strategies to improve compliance with treatment, should improve the long-term prognosis. Further studies are required to explore changes with aging.
Search Results
E. Artavia-Loria, J.L. Chaussain, P.F. Bougnères, and J.C. Job
Abstract
The frequency of hypoglycemia in 165 children with primary adrenal insufficiency, 118 of whom had Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and 47 Addison's Disease, was 18 %. Half of the hypoglycemic episodes occurred in the neonatal period. Hypoglycemia was isolated in 13 children, revealing the disease in 4 newborns with Congenital Adrenal Hypoplasia and in a boy with 11 B Hydroxylase deficiency.
Basal plasma cortisol levels were significantly lower in those of subjects who experienced hypoglycemia ( 47.1 ± 28.6 ng/ml vs. 106.0 ± 86.6 ng/ml, p< 0.001). A significant correlation ( p < 0.001) was found between the plasma concentration of glucose and cortisol at time of hypoglycemia.
G.J. BRUINING, A.N BOSSCHAART, R.S.R. AARSEN, S.W.J. LAMBERTS, P.J.J. SAUER, and E. DEL POZO
ABSTRACT
A female child was admitted to the hospital few days after birth with severe hypoglycemia and convulsive episodes. Plasma insulin levels were elevated and oral and intravenous administration of glucose were unable to keep blood glucose above 2 mmol/l limit. Intravenous infusion of a long acting somatostatin analog, SMS 201-995, at a dosage gradually increasing from 2 to 50 μg/24 hr, was accompanied by a dramatic fall in circulating insulin levels. Normality of glucose homeostasis was restored and convulsive spells ceased. Fasting blood glucose levels stabilized between 3.4 and 4.7 mmol/l. No rebound phenomenon was observed during short term interruptions of the SMS 201-995 infusion. A subtotal pancreatectomy was performed during SMS treatment, and the diagnosis of nesidioblastosis was confirmed by immunocytologic and electron-microscopic studies. It is concluded that this new potent and long acting somatostatin derivative may be useful in the management of hyperinsulinism in the neonate.
K Mazor-Aronovitch, D Gillis, D Lobel, H J Hirsch, O Pinhas-Hamiel, D Modan-Moses, B Glaser, and H Landau
Background: Congenital hyperinsulinism (CH) is treated surgically in many centers (near-total and partial pancreatectomy for diffuse and focal disease respectively). Most patients treated with near-total pancreatectomy developed diabetes during childhood/puberty. CH patients are at increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, some being severe, which are reported to occur in 14–44% of patients from highly heterogenous cohorts. Over the last few decades, we have treated children with CH conservatively without surgery. The aim of this study was to assess the neurodevelopmental outcome of these patients.
Design and methods: The study included 21 Ashkenazi CH medically treated patients: 11 homozygotes (diffuse disease) and 9 heterozygotes with mutations on the paternal allele (presumed focal disease). The mean age was 13.7 years (range 8–23). Neurodevelopmental outcomes were assessed by telephone interviews of parents, using a standard questionnaire. Closest age siblings of CH patients served as controls.
Results: Ten CH patients had perinatal seizures of short duration. Four had post-neonatal seizures, which remitted entirely. During early childhood, four patients (19%) had hypotonia, eight (38%) had fine motor problems, seven (33%) had gross motor problems (clumsiness), and one had mild cerebral palsy. Three patients (14%) had speech problems. Eight patients required developmental therapy, compared to one in the control group. Most of these problems were resolved by age 4–5 years. At school age, all were enrolled in regular education, some excelled in their studies, 6 out of 21 patients (29%) had learning problems (2 out of 21 controls). None had overt diabetes.
Conclusions: Good neurodevelopmental outcome was observed in our conservatively treated CH patients, with no diabetes as reported in patients undergoing pancreatectomy.
N Benhadi, W M Wiersinga, J B Reitsma, T G M Vrijkotte, and G J Bonsel
Background
To examine the relationship between maternal TSH and free thyroxine (FT4) concentrations in early pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death.
Method
Cohort study of 2497 Dutch women. TSH, FT4, and thyroid peroxidase antibodies concentrations were determined at first booking. Child loss was operationalized as miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death. Women with overt thyroid dysfunction were excluded.
Results
Twenty-seven cases of child loss were observed. The mean TSH and FT4 level in the women with child loss was 1.48 mU/l and 9.82 pmol/l compared with 1.11 mU/l and 9.58 pmol/l in women without child loss. The incidence of child loss increased by 60% (OR=1.60 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04–2.47)) for every doubling in TSH concentration. This association remained after adjustment for smoking, age, parity, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, previous preterm deliveries, and previous preterm stillbirth/miscarriage (adjusted odds ratio=1.80 (95% CI: 1.07–3.03)). This was not true for FT4 concentrations (OR=1.41 (95% CI: 0.21–9.40); P=0.724).
Conclusion
In a cohort of pregnant women without overt thyroid dysfunction, the risk of child loss increased with higher levels of maternal TSH. Maternal FT4 concentrations and child loss were not associated.
D Zenaty, Y Aigrain, M Peuchmaur, P Philippe-Chomette, C Baumann, F Cornelis, J P Hugot, D Chevenne, V Barbu, P J Guillausseau, M Schlumberger, J C Carel, J P Travagli, and J Léger
Context
Early prophylactic thyroidectomy in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 2 offers the best chance for a normal life expectancy.
Objective
To analyze the results of thyroidectomy performed during the first year of life in six patients with MEN 2A (codon 634) or MEN 2B (codon 918) syndrome.
Design and setting
A university hospital-based prospective study from 2001 to 2008.
Subjects and methods
Six family members affected either by MEN 2A (n=3) or MEN 2B (n=3) syndrome were identified through neonatal genetic screening.
Results
Total thyroidectomy was performed at a median age of 0.8 year in the six patients, with central lymph node dissection in five. Bilateral millimetric medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) was found in all patients, with a unilateral lymph node micrometastasis in two of the three MEN 2B patients. Before thyroidectomy, MEN 2B patients had much higher basal serum calcitonin levels than those with MEN 2A and controls. After thyroidectomy, with a median follow-up of 3.3 years, the six patients had no evidence of persistent MTC.
Conclusion
Bilateral millimetric MTC may be present during the first year of life in these patients, with lymph node metastases also occurring in MEN 2B patients. These results support a total thyroidectomy at the age of about one year in MEN 2A (codon 634) children with an abnormal serum calcitonin level, and a total thyroidectomy with central neck dissection within the first weeks of life in MEN 2B patients.
Sylvie Hiéronimus, Magali Bec-Roche, Florence Pedeutour, Jean Claude Lambert, Kathy Wagner-Malher, Jean Christophe Mas, Jean Louis Sadoul, and Patrick Fénichel
Objective: Clinical features associated with microdeletion of chromosome 22q11 (del(22)(q11)) are highly variable. Increased awareness of this condition is needed among specialists such as endocrinologists to reduce diagnostic delay and improve clinical care. The purpose of this study was to describe the phenotype of patients with del(22)(q11), focusing on parathyroid gland dysfunction.
Design and methods: Charts of 19 patients, including one kindred of three, known to have del(22)(q11) diagnosed by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) were reviewed from the register of the department of Medical Genetics. Major clinical features including hypoparathyroidism phenotype were collected.
Results: Parathyroid dysfunction was present in 8 out of 16 patients (50%). Six patients were diagnosed with overt hypoparathyroidism. Hypocalcemia manifested as laryngeal stridor within the first days of life (n=3), seizures in infancy (n=1) and adolescence (n=2). The connection between hypoparathyroidism and diagnosis of del(22)(q11) was belated at the median age of 18 years. One patient had presented with transient neonatal hypoparathyroidism, and one patient had latent hypoparathyroidism. Within the kindred family, the phenotype variability including that of parathyroid dysfunction was as marked as between unrelated individuals. Standard karyotype failed to detect the deletion in 15 out of 19 cases.
Conclusions: Abnormal parathyroid function in the del(22)(q11) ranges from severe neonatal hypocalcemia to latent hypoparathyroidism. Del(22)(q11) should be considered as a potential cause of hypocalcemia even in young adult. When suspected, the diagnosis requires investigation by FISH. Furthermore, long-term calcemia follow-up is needed in normocalcemic patients with del(22)(q11) because of the possible evolution to hypocalcemic hypoparathyroidism.
Felix G Riepe, Wiebke Ahrens, Nils Krone, Regina Fölster-Holst, Jochen Brasch, Wolfgang G Sippell, Olaf Hiort, and Carl-Joachim Partsch
Objective: To clarify the molecular defect for the clinical finding of congenital hypothyroidism combined with the manifestation of calcinosis cutis in infancy.
Case report: The male patient presented with moderately elevated blood thyrotropin levels at neonatal screening combined with slightly decreased plasma thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine concentrations, necessitating thyroid hormone substitution 2 weeks after birth. At the age of 7 months calcinosis cutis was seen and the patient underwent further investigation. Typical features of Albright’s hereditary osteodystrophy (AHO), including round face, obesity and delayed psychomotor development, were found.
Methods and results: Laboratory investigation revealed a resistance to parathyroid hormone (PTH) with highly elevated PTH levels and a reduction in adenylyl cyclase-stimulating protein (Gsα) activity leading to the diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism type Ia (PHP Ia). A novel heterozygous mutation (c364T > G in exon 5, leading to the amino acid substitution Ile-106 → Ser) was detected in the GNAS gene of the patient. This mutation was not found in the patient’s parents, both of whom showed normal Gsα protein activity in erythrocytes and no features of AHO. A de novo mutation is therefore likely.
Conclusions: Subcutaneous calcifications in infancy should prompt the clinician to a thorough search for an underlying disease. The possibility of AHO and PHP Ia should be considered in children with hypothyroidism and calcinosis cutis. Systematic reviews regarding the frequency of calcinosis in AHO are warranted.
C Evans, NJ Jordan, G Owens, D Bradley, M Ludgate, and R John
OBJECTIVE: We describe an infant with surprisingly severe neonatal hypothyroidism due to transplacental passage of thyrotrophin receptor (TSH-R)-blocking antibodies (TBAb). DESIGN AND METHODS: TBAb were detected using a cell line which stably expresses the human TSH-R and a cAMP-responsive luciferase reporter by their ability to inhibit TSH-stimulated luciferase expression. Potent TBAb were detected in maternal serum and initially in the infant's serum but, in the latter, TBAb decreased over time to within the reference range by 3-4 months of age, illustrating the transient nature of this condition. RESULTS: The thyroid function of this child did not return to normal on withdrawal of thyroxine therapy at 16 months of age when he developed transient compensated hypothyroidism. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that the presence of potent TBAb in utero and in the first weeks of life may have implications for the development of a normally sized thyroid gland. We have demonstrated the presence of TBAb in the mother's milk and, as far as we are aware, this is the first such report. However, the TBAb in the milk probably did not contribute significantly to hypothyroidism in the child, given the reducing antibody titre in his circulation.
T Meissner, U Wendel, P Burgard, S Schaetzle, and E Mayatepek
BACKGROUND: The term congenital hyperinsulinism (CHI) comprises a group of different genetic disorders with the common finding of recurrent episodes of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria, treatment and long-term follow-up in a large cohort of CHI patients. PATIENTS: The data from 114 patients from different hospitals were obtained by a detailed questionnaire. Patients presented neonatally (65%), during infancy (28%) or during childhood (7%). RESULTS: In 20 of 74 (27%) patients with neonatal onset birth weight was greatly increased (group with standard deviation scores (SDS) >2.0) with a mean SDS of 3.2. Twenty-nine percent of neonatal-onset vs 69% of infancy/childhood-onset patients responded to diazoxide and diet or to a carbohydrate-enriched diet alone. Therefore, we observed a high rate of pancreatic surgery performed in the neonatal-onset group (70%) compared with the infancy/childhood-onset group (28%). Partial (3%), subtotal (37%) or near total (15%) pancreatectomy was performed. After pancreatic surgery there appeared a high risk of persistent hypoglycemia (40%). Immediately post-surgery or with a latency of several Years insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus was observed in operated patients (27%). General outcome was poor with a high degree of psychomotor or mental retardation (44%) or epilepsy (25%). An unfavorable outcome correlated with infancy-onset manifestation (chi(2)=6.1, P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The high degree of developmental delay, in particular in infancy-onset patients emphasizes the need for a change in treatment strategies to improve the unfavorable outcome. Evaluation of treatment alternatives should take the high risk of developing diabetes mellitus into account.